Biotechnology in the Textile Industry

Textile industry, one of the oldest and most widespread manufacturing sectors, has traditionally relied on chemical-intensive processes that often raise environmental concerns. In recent years, biotechnology is rapidly transforming the textile industry, offering innovative solutions that promote sustainability, efficiency, and novel material properties. By harnessing living organisms, enzymes, and advanced genetic engineering, biotechnology is redefining how textiles are produced, processed, and finished. Biotechnology in the textile industry is the application of natural organisms and their derivatives to produce better products, processes and services by taking into account environmental issues.

The biotechnology process can be described as the use of microorganisms or enzymes in the presence of moisture, oxygen and nutrients in an environment with a temperature of 15 30°C and a pH range of six to nine. These conditions allow for the creation of useful products that have only carbon dioxide and water as their side products. It must also be pointed out that any toxic product present in the developing biotechnology processes affects the outcome and should therefore be excluded.

Most industries use biotechnology as a fermentation process whereby bacteria or enzymes digest, transform and synthesize natural materials. This makes the natural materials change from one form into another. Enzymes themselves are not alive; instead, they are complex, chemical protein catalysts that cause reactions to take place, which can produce changes. Most enzymes used in textile technology are cellulases, amylases, proteases and lipases.

This article explores key applications, benefits, and future trends of biotechnology in textile industry.

What is Biotechnology?

Biotechnology refers to the use of living organisms, systems, or biological processes to develop products or technologies for specific industrial, medical, or agricultural purposes. In the textile sector, biotechnology primarily involves the application of microorganisms, enzymes, and bio-based processes for fiber production, fabric treatment, dyeing, and finishing.

Biotechnology in Genetic Engineering

With improved understanding of how genes determine the various characteristics and properties of living organisms, techniques have been developed to isolate the active components (DNA) and manipulate them outside cells. Fragments of DNA obtained from one organism can be transferred to another, so imparting the properties and capabilities of the first organism to the second. For example, lipolase, an enzyme used in washing powders and liquids, dissolves fats. If the lipase gene is removed from one type of fungus and transferred into another that can grow more easily in a fermenter, the lipolase can be harvested in larger amounts.

Cotton

Genetic engineering is aimed at improving insect, disease and herbicide resistance in addition to enhancing fiber properties and performance. Bio-pesticides are used to control beetle and caterpillar activity in fruit and vegetable crops. This technique has been extended to combat the cotton boll weevil, which destroys cotton fibers. A toxin gene has been inserted into the cotton plants to produce a caterpillar resistant plant; when the caterpillar goes to eat the cotton the toxins produced by the plant paralyse the gut of the caterpillar. However, the pesticide is not harmful to other beneficial insects.

There is ongoing research to allow natural polyester (polyhydroxylbutyrate, PHB) to grow within the central hollow of the cotton fiber to create a natural polyester–cotton combination. Other developments include colored cotton and cotton that produces an enzyme that can be used for filtration systems or water ways which uses the enzyme to digest dirt and residues within the water for clean water waste. Cotton fibers are also being customized to produce fibers with greater strength, shrink resistance and variable absorbency rates.

Sheep and Goats

Developments have been made in genetics to produce more efficient feeding methods, greater insect and pest resistance, softer and finer fibers etc. One development involves an injection of a special protein that temporarily stops the growth of hair in an animal. After four to six weeks, a natural break appears at the base of the fiber; the hair or fleece can then be peeled off. With sheep, this increases daily shearing output to 120–300 fleeces per team. However, there is concern among researchers about the increased rates of miscarriage among the ewes that received the injections.

Cloning – Dolly the sheep was born in 1996. She was the first domestic animal to be cloned from an adult cell taken from the animal’s mammary gland. Cloning of animals could lead to specific characteristics being targeted, such as high-quality wool for particular end purposes. Dolly died at age six due to advanced arthritis and lung cancer.

Silk

Various areas of research are being conducted in China to overcome the dependence of silkworms on mulberry leaves, to improve the strength and fineness of silk, to increase the silkworms’ viral resistance and to enable the production of colored fibers.

Micro-organisms

Dragline spider silk, the silk spiders use to catch themselves when they fall, is a proteinaceous fiber that cannot be produced in sufficient quantities to make it viable (plus, spiders are cannibalistic). Therefore, researchers have explored ways of producing high quality, strong fibers, called Biosteel. This has been tried in a number of ways; spider silk DNA was transferred into bacteria, such as E.coli, to manufacture proteins, produced in tobacco and potato plants through their leaves and also tubers in potatoes, to give the protein fiber with the strength and resilience of spider silk that could be used in bulletproof vests as Biosteel has the high tensile strength similar to that of Kevlar, but it has much higher elasticity. By 2010, further developments produced the spider silk protein in the milk of transgenic goats. The gene for dragline silk was taken from the orb-weaver spider and inserted into the DNA that prompts milk production in the udders of goats. One litre of milk produced one to two grams of the silk protein. Using the wet-spinning process, the silk protein solution was extruded to produce the fiber. Currently, spider silk is used for medical applications such as ligament repair because it is elastic and the body does not reject it. It is also used to create parachute cords.

Monoclonal Antibodies

These are protein molecules made from identical immune cells that are clones of unique parent cells. They have an amazing ability to ‘recognize’ specific substances, even if they are in limited concentration. Carefully selected monoclonal antibodies bind themselves to the marker molecules (epitope, which are part of antigens) and produce an easy-to-see color change. This process has been developed as a marking tool, Biocode, and is used within a variety of industries: food, drink and textile. In textiles the markers can be applied at any stage of production from the fiber, yarn, fabric through to the finished product on such items as branded denims and luxury fibers e.g. cashmere. The codes can be detected by customs and trading standards officers by using simple equipment in the field to prevent counterfeiting of branded goods and fraudulent labelling such as fiber content.

DNA Probe

Probes are another form of technology that has evolved from genetic engineering. Short pieces of DNA can be designed to stick to other pieces of DNA. This fact can help researchers identify species (cashmere versus wool versus other goat hair, for example). This technique came about due to the increase in specialty animal hairs and labelling fraud. The probes can also identify various cellulosic origins e.g. cotton, ramie etc.

Biotechnology in Fabric Production

The emissions in fiber production that occur during the dyeing and finishing processes was once much more harmful to the environment. In the late 1900s, however, vast improvements were made in terms of disposing waste products to make them ecofriendly.

Fiber Preparation

• The retting of flax was traditionally a dew-and-water process that was costly. In Northern Ireland, people found that using sulphur dioxide gas enables the woody structure to break down more quickly and it causes the enzyme retting process to prevent excess bacterial and fungal growth that could occur in the water system.
• The carbonization process for degrading vegetable matter in wool has now been replaced by implementing cellulase enzymes, which degrade the impurities.

Fabric Preparation

• The amylase enzyme is used for desizing wovens, and it makes the process more efficient, economical and consistent.
• The scouring and bleaching processes are targets for enzyme reaction because the chemicals used in both scouring and bleaching are very harmful to the environment as they use a solution of sodium hydroxide. These two processes remove pectins, wax and color from fabrics and can now be achieved with the use of certain enzymes: catalase for removal of excess bleach and pectinase for the removal of pectin on cellulosics so increasing the wettability of the fabric for further processes; Cellulase in the bioblasting process is used to break down cellulose of cellulosic fabrics such as cotton and lyocell. This process removes fibrils off the surface of the fabric to ensure a continued smooth surface and softness over time. Problems still arise, however, when trying to remove the outer cases of the cotton seeds: the casing may remain in the fabric, even after the ginning process, and these are difficult to dye.
• Research concerning enzymes continues. For example, it may be possible to destroy honeydew sugars that result from insect secretions and cause problems when spinning cotton.
• Catalase enzymes break down residual hydrogen peroxide (bleach), which is used as a pre-bleach on cotton that will be dyed a pale color. Reactive dyes are sensitive to peroxides, and the fabrics require extended rinsing or the use of chemical scavengers before dying can take place.

Finishing

• Bio-stoning or Enzyme Denim Abrasion. Traditionally the stonewash process on denim fabric used pumice stones in a tumble machine to abrade and remove particles of indigo dye from the surface of denim to create faded areas. Today the far more eco-friendly process of bio-stoning is used; the enzyme, cellulase, attacks the cellulose in the cotton fibrils which is holding the indigo dye. This causes the indigo to be removed giving the same effect to the denim fabric as the stoning process but they don’t damage machines or create waste water issues of sludge deposits. It is also a less time consuming task to use cellulase because the wash load can be increased and the stones do not have to be removed from the fabrics. However, there are disadvantages to using cellulase: fabric degradation may occur, the fibers may become weaker or there may be staining of the white weft yarn in denim fabric so there is a loss in color contrast. If acidic cellulase enzymes are used then this may cause a reddening effect to the indigo dye; if this effect is not desired then neutral and alkaline cellulases (with a pH of 6–8) are used. Nowadays desizing, bio-stoning and bio-polishing is completed as a one bath process in neutral conditions to give the shortest process time, lowest water consumption and energy usage.
• Biopolishing involves a cellulase action similar to bio-stoning: it removes the fine surface fibrils of cellulosic fibers, such as cotton, ramie, viscose and lyocell, which eliminates pilling, provides better print definition, creates brighter colors and produces a softer fabric without losing any absorbency. With tubular cotton fabrics, some of the removed fibrils may get trapped inside the cloth so it is important that the fabric is turned inside out to remove the excess fibrils (lint). Removing the fine fibers causes a weight loss of about 3–5% and a strength loss of about 2–7%. This method is often used on ramie, as a cotton or linen substitute, and to upgrade, low-quality cottons.
• Wool processing applications may use protease enzymes where gentle wash cycles are to be used. These have been developed for a range of finishing treatments to increase comfort (less itchy, greater softness), improve the surface appearance, including pill resistance and enable gentle machine washing without shrinkage. This process is very similar to bio-polishing, but it is effective only on wools that have been chlorinated to remove loose fibers and scales. The process is usually aimed at knitted fabrics rather than woven fabrics. The use of the protease enzymes removes the cuticle scales, which modifies lustre, handle, shrinkage and felting characteristics, but the fabric may become weaker.
• Silk processing uses protease enzymes to degum the silk and produce a sand washing effect on the material. The treatment of silk and cellulosic blends can be used for stunning results. Proteases are also used to wash down printing screens after use in order to remove the build-up of proteinaceous gums that are used to thicken printing pastes.

Biotechnology in After Care

Modern enzyme systems have reduced the use of sodium perborate in detergents. Similarly, the release of harmful salts into the environment has been reduced. The changes provide energy savings amounting to approximately 30% due to low-temperature washes being enabled by enzyme containing detergents; most enzyme action performs best between 15°c—30°c. Commercial laundering usually lasts for six to twelve minutes, which is not long enough for the enzymes to perform adequately whereas home washing is effective because the cycles take longer.

The following enzymes found in detergents affect the following substances:

• Proteases – grass, blood, egg and sweat stains.
• Lipases – lipstick, butter, salad, oil and sauces.
• Amylases – spaghetti, custard and starches.
• Cellulases – color brighteners, softeners and soil removers.
• Mannanases – chocolate, ice-cream, dressings (guar gum containing foods).
• Pectinases – fruits, vegetables and fruit containing products

Also available on the market is an enzyme-impregnated cloth, which can be used in the home tumble dryer to freshen clothing that would normally be dry-cleaned.

Environmental Issues

Laws are now in place to prevent the pollution of local waterways, and water councils frequently test waste from industry sources to ensure that the effluence is within the legal limits.

• Color Removal – reactive dyes are not naturally absorbed by biomasses which can break them down so investigations are being made into the use of direct microbial attack onto the linkages within organic dyestuff to break it down.
• Metal and Toxin Removal – selected fungi are used to absorb heavy metals from effluent streams and toxic tannins from tannery effluent.
• Contamination Lagoons – these are special areas used by industry where a 3D biomat of knitted polyester monofilament has been patented. The mat is stable and resistant to compression and lies in lagoons used by industry where effluent is sent which cannot be broken down by air. The mat counteracts the build of anaerobic sludge at the bottom of the lagoon.

New Fiber Sources

Biopol: Research on new fiber materials has been ongoing for a number of years. Biopolymers using biotechnological processes are a subject of particular interest. Zeneca has already produced naturally occurring polyester, polyhydroxylbutyrate (PHB), via bacterial fermentation of a sugar feedstock. It is called Biopol, and it is cheaper and easier to produce than natural fibers. Biopol biodegrades completely in any microbe-rich environment e.g. compost heaps. Today, it is very expensive (£5—£10 per kg) for many textile applications, but it is used for medical sutures and environmentally friendly fishnets. It can also be extruded as a fine film or fiber that has properties determined by the end use. Plus, it can be moulded into bottles and used to create the coating paper used in compostable garden bags. Attempts are being made to clone the active gene that produces the polymer in order to create a natural crop such as oil rapeseed. The Biopol Process creates bacterial cellulose which is fine and resilient. They are produced as non-wovens, used to reinforce blends with aramids and manufacture diaphragms for stereo headsets, filters and odour absorbers. Biopol has many medical uses including gauzes, sutures and implants but also, they have healing properties due to the fact that they are biocompatible, biodegradable and nontoxic.

Corn Fiber: It is actually a synthetic fiber developed from lactic acid that is taken from fermented corn starch known as Lactron. It has a strength and elasticity similar to polyester and polyamide, but it is biodegradable and decomposes into carbon dioxide, hydrogen and oxygen in soil. It can be woven or non-woven and it can be used for clothing, soft furnishings and sanitary materials. It is also used in the agriculture, automotive and construction industries.

Fungi: The use of the long, fine fibers produced by some fungi is used in wet-laid non-woven materials.

Fermented: Known as Micro’be, this material is made out of alcohol that is fermented using acetobacter. Acetobacter is a rod-shaped, non-hazardous and non-pathogenic bacteria that, when combined with oxygen, turns alcohol into vinegar. The bi-product is a rubbery, soft, skin-like, delicate, translucent fabric made of cellulose microfibrils, similar to cotton, that are brown, red or white, depending upon the alcohol used. The fibers are formed on the surface of the alcohol in a 2D form, and then they are removed to make a garment.

Further development of this process has allowed the bacteria to form 3D garments such as dresses; it would take less than one week to ferment a dress. The disadvantage of the fabric is that it can smell like stale beer or wine and feel slimy when wet. How commercially viable this material will become is still unknown, but it is intended that instead of a costly production line of weavers, cutters and machinists, expensive machinery and high carbon emission living microbes will ferment a 3d seamless garment at a much cheaper cost.

However, Micro’be can be used for athletic products, make-up, surgery materials, drugs, mobile telephones etc. Indeed, some expect it to be so integrated with our everyday lives that it will become a technological extension of our biological bodies. Medically, the microbial cellulose is used as a dressing because it is nano-porous, which allows the wound to breath while staying sterile. As it is transparent, doctors can observe the wound healing underneath, and in the case of burns, it keeps the skin cool. Also, it doesn’t require adhesive to make it stick to the patient, it remains close to the skin as it shrinks to hold its position on the body and it’s biodegradable.

The year 2013 saw further development of the material to create scaffolding liver cells that produced an artificial liver outside of the body. Such advancements could help people suffering from liver failure whereby the blood can be redirected to the artificial liver which will allow the patient’s own liver to regenerate itself and, therefore, save their life. There are many advances in the world of biotechnology, and new inventions are constantly coming onto the market. There is, however, awareness in society that the modification of natural species may have long-term, unknown sequences.

Benefits of Biotechnology in Textile Industry

1. Environmentally Friendly: Reduces chemical usage, wastewater pollution, and energy consumption.
2. Selective and Efficient: Enzymes work under mild conditions with high specificity, preserving fabric quality.
3. Cost-effective: Lower processing costs due to reduced water, energy, and chemical needs.
4. Product Quality Enhancement: Improves texture, strength, and appearance of fabrics.
5. Innovation: Enables smart textiles (e.g., enzyme-based pH sensors).

Conclusion

Biotechnology is revolutionizing the textile industry by introducing sustainable fibers, eco-friendly processing methods, and innovative materials with enhanced properties. From enzyme-driven manufacturing to biofabricated textiles and natural dyes, biotechnology is paving the way for a cleaner, more resource-efficient, and high-performance future for textiles. As the industry continues to evolve, the synergy between biology and technology will remain at the forefront of sustainable fashion and textile innovation.

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